Preservation of Audio
From SIS Wiki
Preserving Cultural Heritage through Sound
Annotations by Scott Crossman, Stephen Hollister, Samantha Lawrence, Kathleen McDaniel, and Heather Perrone
Alexander, B. (2008). “For posterity”: The personal audio recordings of Louis Armstrong. The American Archivist, 71(1), 50-86. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40294494
“For Posterity” is an immensely readable article that mainly discusses Louis Armstrong’s unique position in history as an audio archivist. His commitment to documenting history in a candid and autobiographical manner, with myriad manifestations such as installing his “home recorder and traveling counter part,” (p. 58) in his living room and car, or simply presenting a portable recorder and imposing on others. The audio estate contains field recordings of his home life (including heated arguments or hours of silence), conversations backstage, and is organized into nearly 700 tapes. Though the author brings the reader through the historical context of Southern racism and the extent of Armstrong’s worldwide fame during his life, Alexander also continuously reminds us through transcribed conversations, as well as theoretical claims, that there is cultural and historic value in the recordings because they are so candid.
Armstrong, A. (2008). The master's voice: Digitizing and preserving oral histories of architects. Art Documentation: Bulletin of the Art Libraries Society of North America, 27(2), 15-21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27949490 Retrieved from [1]
Armstrong reviews the current technical standards in place for the preservation of oral histories currently being stored on magnetic tape, and identifies the most successful preservation strategies. After a discussion of four case studies on the conversion of analog tape to digital, Armstrong compiles a useful list of recommendations for best practice based on publications by audio engineers, audio archivists, and the results of large-scale preservation efforts. Armstrong offers technical recommendations on the topics of bit-rate and sample depth for maximum clarity of voice recordings, metadata, preservation practice, and future concerns to the field of audio preservation. Armstrong’s research, technical recommendations, and references are useful for study in the preservation of oral histories on magnetic tape.
Bamberger, R. & Brylaski, S. (2010). The state of recorded sound preservation in the United States: A national legacy at risk in the digital age (CLIR publication no.148). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/reports/pub148/pub148.pdf
The authors present an extensive report on the current state of audio preservation in America and touch on a variety of topics including technical preservation issues, access, copyright, and archival management. Overall, the findings of this report are helpful in understanding why audio preservation is a necessary undertaking, requiring immediate attention. The range of subject matter covered in the report makes it suitable for use by those in the academic field, conducting research on practically any area of audio preservation, as well as technical practitioners, such as sound engineers or audio archivists.
Bereijo, A. (2004). The conservation and preservation of film and magnetic materials (2): Magnetic materials. Library Review, 53(7), 372-378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00242530410552313
Bereijo discusses magnetic media in detail in this article. We learn about the history, development, and physical structure of magnetic media. There are many differing opinions on the conservation requirements, storage conditions and best practices of magnetic media and this author hopes to clarify the confusion this may cause. Ideal storage conditions and realistic life expectancy of magnetic media are covered. Any institution that has a collection of magnetic media will find this important.
Besek, J. (2005). Copyright and related issues relevant to digital preservation and dissemination of pre-1972 commercial sound recordings by libraries and archives (CLIR publication no.135). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/reports/pub135
The dissemination of published works may seem like an activity Amazon.com would more readily participate in than archivists or librarians. But regardless of how entertaining they are, sound recordings that pertain to history or research must be preserved, according to the mandates of the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000. Some libraries may have a designated copyright librarian, who can analyze the “works” underlying or contained in published/commercial audio, and can readily discern between duplication or dissemination that would infringe the copyrights of the holder and those forms that which would count as “fair use”. Therefore, this document may not necessarily seem worth the time and dedication needed to comprehend it fully, but the fact that the penalties for such copyright violations can lead to supreme court lawsuits, as well as the fact that new technologies change the nature of copyright more quickly than our legislation can keep up, it seems like every library or information professional working with audio should at least acknowledge the issue of copyrights for published recordings. In addition to the application of confusing chronological bureaucratic movements that slowly, conservatively, augment existing (state AND federal) laws, simply determining what “works” and “rights” are contained in a recording can be difficult, and for these determinations, Besek and the NRPB have created an authoritative guide.
Besek, J. (2009). Copyright and related issues relevant to digital preservation and dissemination of unpublished pre-1972 sound recordings by libraries and archives (CLIR publication no.144). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/reports/pub144
As the executive director of the Law, Media and Arts center at Columbia Law School, legal advisor of the Section 108 Study Group, and the writer of several authoritative articles on copyright law in digital preservation, Besek has demonstrated her ability to provide thorough accounts of complex issues that pertain to archivists and librarians. The 93-page summary of federal and state copyright laws regarding unpublished audio recordings created before February 15, 1972 is an important one since, as the foreword states, “Unpublished sound recordings are among the most culturally important resources entrusted to libraries and archives.” The article is important for many reasons, especially for its special attention to Section 108 of the Copyright Act, and the underlying current that the report is for the practical use of ‘pre-1972’ unpublished recordings by digital preservation professionals in libraries. There is a unique controversy arising from the time when federal law mandated a copyright notice, and sound recordings never really entered the public domain like the rest, but instead remained governed by a labyrinth of state laws.
Besser, H. (2007). Collaboration for electronic preservation. Library Trends, 56(1), 216-229. http://dx.doi/org/10.1353/lib.2007.0043 Retrieved from [2]
According to the author, collaboration amongst LIS professionals and organizations has always been an important factor in the development of late twentieth century preservation methodologies, via resource sharing and the distribution of knowledge, and argues that it continues to play a crucial role today in regards to the preservation of digital content. An interesting feature of the article is that Besser, a professor of cinema studies at the Tisch School of the Arts, provides two case studies, in which they were a participant, with one illustrating their experiences with collaboration while performing preservation research on analog tape content. The article is useful because it provides readers with first-hand experiences and insights that exemplify the utility of collaboration in the preservation of digital audio content.
Boston, G., Brock-Nannestad, G., Gaustad, L., Häfner, A., Schüller, D., & Sjöberg, T. (2005). The safeguarding of the audio heritage: Ethics, principles and preservation strategy. International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA). Retrieved from http://www.iasaweb.org/sites/default/files/downloads/publications/TC03_English.pdf
The International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives technical committee has composed a document addressing technical and ethical concerns for archivists. Some of the topics considered in this paper are: ethical considerations, mass storage, principles of digital archiving, data formats and resolution, metadata, conversion, solutions and strategies for the preservation of audio media (IASA, 2005). This paper is useful for the librarian archivist as a basic guide to the mission and responsibilities of preserving audio media.
Bradley, K. (2014). Built on sound principles: Audio management and delivery at the National Library of Australia. IFLA Journal, 40(3), 186-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0340035214543058
The author discusses the development of the National Library of Australia’s Audio Management and Delivery System, which was created as a part of their long-term preservation program to allow safe access to their extensive collection of audio recordings. In addition, the article argues on the evolutionary nature of library innovation, a topic not touched on by the other literature. Ultimately, this article has value for readers interested in the accessibility and management of audio collections. At the same time, this article is relevant to the topic of audio preservation because making digital audio recordings accessible is quickly becoming a part of the preservation process. The concept of digital curation is forcing professionals to be aware of not only the digitization process of audio recordings but also the entirety of their life cycles.
Breaden, I. (2006). Sound practices: On-line audio exhibits and the cultural heritage archive. The American Archivist, 69(1), 33-59. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40294310
The Society of American Archivists presented Breaden with the 2005 Pease Award for this remarkable paper, and then published it in 2006. For someone who is a “student”, the paper has a sharp insight into the deficit between what practices are currently employed in online audio exhibits and what practices are going to need to be employed in the future. The sources that are cited are specific and technical enough to make Breaden’s commentary authoritative. The connections drawn between 25 different exhibits lead directly to the suggested best practices that he provides: a focus on “active use”, or immersion of the user in an online arena much different from a physical one, where the short time expected for delivery of information dictates usage, and usage of the exhibit is the goal. Sometimes a low-quality mp3 is better than a 41 kHz WAV file, if the point is to be used more often. Aspects included in online audio exhibits are not necessarily indicative of what institutions would include if they had an infinite budget, so Breaden beckons all archives to raise their standards of audio preservation and curation, since he has shown us (through an intricate points-based system) that the exhibits which represent their institution’s materials the best are used most effectively and most often.
Bressan, F., & Canazza, S. (2013). A systemic approach to the preservation of audio documents: Methodology and software tools. Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/489515 Retrieved from [3]
Within the article, Bressan, a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Padova, and Canazza, a professor of information engineering at the University of Padova, offer their readers with a transdisciplinary effort in the advancement of audio preservation. Their work consists of the development for a methodology and software tool, called PSKit PreservationPanel, in an attempt to improve reliability, quality control, and streamline processing via automation. These aspirations are then tested and examined through a series of case studies in which their methodology and software tool were utilized. The article is useful because it provides a methodology and software that aids in the preservation of digital audio content.
Bressan, F., Roda, A., Canazza, S., Fontana, F., & Bertani, R. (2013). The safeguard of audio collections: A computer science based approach to quality control--the case of the sound archive of the Arena di Verona. Advances in Multimedia. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/276354 Retrieved from [4]
The purpose of the article is to present its readers with a case study in which the methodology and findings of REVIVAL (Restoration of the Vicentini archive in Verona and its accessibility as an Audio e-Library) are discussed. The authors provide a highly organized and well-written discussion on the effects of chemical analysis on magnetic tapes and the use of newly developed hardware/software as methods of improving quality control for the preservation of audio documents. For readers interested in alternative and emerging methods of enhancing quality control for audio collections, the article proves to be useful.
Brooks, T. (Ed.). (2013). Copyright & fair use [Column]. ARSC Journal, 44(2), 249-252. Retrieved from [5]
Tim Brooks is the Chair of the Copyright & Fair Use Committee of the Association for Recorded Sound Collections (ARSC), and the editor of the journal which contains an all-too-brief discussion of specific corporations attempting to regulate copyrights supposedly afforded to creators and copyrights holders by myriad state and federal laws. According to Epperson, the author of the article, The Digital Millennial Copyright Act (DMCA) can control state and federal law; this, along with the fact that judges at any tier of the judicial system can be biased, the DMCA’s ability to pull content down from the internet for “safe harbor” inevitably led to a slew of lawsuits, appeals, and several temporary decisions or precedents. This Copyright & Fair Use column, by citing rulings, decisions, and statements issued by specific entities (i.e. Capitol Records Inc., MP3Tunes), through a language that is both informal and technical. Whereas Besek (2009b) can summarize the confusion, it is important for any professional working with historic recordings to watch how definitions are formed, precedents are set, headlines on the newspapers create controversy, and how all of these relate to a person playing the guitar at a concert, or someone’s son or daughter downloading their favorite songs online.
Brooks, T. (Ed.). (2015). Copyright & fair use [Column]. ARSC Journal, 46(1), 104-110. Retrieved from [6]
Tim Brooks edits a wonderful C&FU column again, only this time with an “earthquake in the music copyright field” (p. 104). Flo & Eddie, Inc., company name of 1960s music group The Turtles, was granted two summary judgments against Sirius XM in New York and California, whereby the state laws governing copyrights for the recording and performance of their songs, even though the state laws were “broader” than the federal laws (p.107). There was no dispute of facts; the judges practiced “judicial activism” by “acting unilaterally” (p.104). The Update by Bruce Epperson in this column is especially relevant, but the C&FU column always gives audio preservationists the ability to bear in mind precedents set by court cases, as well as the significance of the February 15, 1972 date, the distinction between published/unpublished, and the way that judges can cope with changing technologies as they relate to audio preservation. Copyright law is an especially complex issue for audio in the U.S., but the authors encourage active reading through a conversational tone.
Brylawski, S. (2003). Review of audio collection preservation trends and challenges. In J. Matz (Ed.). Sound savings: Audio collections. Paper presented at Sound savings: Audio collections, University of Texas at Austin, Texas (17-27). Washington, D.C.: Association of Research Libraries. Retrieved from http://www.arl.org/storage/documents/publications/sound-savings.pdf
In this paper presented at the 2003 Association of Research Libraries’ Sound Savings Symposium, the author reviews the state of audio preservation and the challenges of preserving audio collections. The paper delves into the role of digital preservation and digital repositories in audio preservation, a discussion that is covered more thoroughly in later literature. While the paper is notably outdated, it is beneficial in a historical context because it allows readers to identify the areas in which the audio preservation field has progressed and those that it still struggles with. For example, the paper discusses the lack of documented preservation standards for the original audio formats but since its publication, several articles and guidelines have been published to tackle this issue.
Brylawski, S., Gevinson, A., Loughney, P., & Nelson-Strauss, B. (2012). The Library of Congress national recording preservation plan (CLIR publication no.156). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and The Library of Congress. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-recording-preservation-plan/publications-and-reports/documents/NRPPLANCLIRpdfpub156.pdf
“Audiovisual materials are the fastest growing segment of our nation’s archives and special collections” (Brylawski, Gevinson, Loughney, and Nelson-Strauss, 2012). To address these growing collections, the Library of Congress presents recommendations on storage facilities, professional training, university, laboratory-based degree programs, creative internships and continuing education for professionals in the field, among others. The LC has addressed the problems facing preservationists in terms of funding, strategy and management of vast collections, and a discussion of possible opportunities for future research. The strength of this publication lies in the thorough research, the readable style, and the extensive references for further reading. This is a highly useful resource for information professionals concerned with audio preservation.
Brylawski, S., Lerman, M., Pike, R., & Smith, K. (Eds.). (2015). ARSC Guide to Audio Preservation (CLIR publication no.164). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub164/pub164.pdf
The ARSC Guide to Audio Preservation is an extensive discussion of all aspects of audio preservation, and is an invaluable resource for information on this topic. The authors offer a detailed look at the previous efforts at audio preservation, and proceed by offering additional technical advice on the conversion of analog media to digital format. In addition, the authors offer explanation of the technical aspects of formatting, metadata, and long-term preservation strategies. Discussions on preservation of cylinders, grooved disc formats, magnetic formats, and digital formats are useful for the preservationist with a wide range of duties. Also of great value to the researcher is the information on curation, care and maintenance, long term storage and an extensive bibliography.
Byers, F. R. (2003). Care and Handling of CDs and DVDs (CLIR publication no.121). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/pub121.pdf
Byers offers a well-structured quick reference for librarians and archivists tasked with preserving audio media. A thorough examination of the different types of CDs and DVDs, cleaning procedures, environmental concerns, and surface damage are all addressed. This is a useful document for technical services personnel to aid in the maintenance of CD and DVD media.
Canazza, S. (2012). The digital curation of ethnic music audio archives: From preservation to restoration. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 12(2/3), 121-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00799-012-0088-x Retrieved from [7]
Canazza addresses the specific challenges facing archivists of ethnic music. In addition to the technical aspects of preserving items of musical heritage, the author notes that preservation of music of this type is “often the only witnesses of disappeared oral cultures” (Canazza, 2012). The preservation of aural cultural heritage items “requires procedures, detailed for every type of carrier, able to preserve not only the recorded audio but also all the metadata and contextual information which can be useful for the musicological research” (Canazza, 2012). In addition to explorations of what it means to a culture to preserve its music, Canazza discusses preservation protocols with regards to formatting and software tools to achieve superior results for long term, high quality access to recordings. The explorations of software tools in this article are enriched with clear terminology as well as algorithms and spectrographs useful for describing the properties of sound recordings. The usefulness of this article is not limited to ethnomusicologists, but rather to anyone preserving an item of cultural heritage presented in audio form.
Canazza, S., Camurri, A., & Fujinaga, I. (2010). Ethnic music audio documents: From preservation to fruition. Signal Processing, 90(4), 977-980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sigpro.2009.12.001 Retrieved from [8]
According to the authors, there are several issues surrounding the preservation of ethnic music. They point out that these issues stem from the three main perspectives of active preservation (Storm [1980], Schüller [2001], and Brock-Nannestad [1997]), different approaches in restoration (documental, aesthetical, sociological, and reconstructive), availability/access to ethnic music, and technical concerns from the original recordings and edited versions available on the Internet. As such, the article is particularly useful for readers interested in the preservation of ethno-musical cultural heritage recordings and their precarious situation in regards to their conversion to digital content.
Canazza, S., De Poli, G., & Mian, G. A. (2010). Restoration of audio documents by means of Extended Kalman Filter. IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 18(6), 1107-1115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TASL.2009.2030005
The authors discuss the results of audio restoration using the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) theory. This highly technical article adds to the literature on audio restoration by presenting a new method for audio enhancement, as well as by categorizing the existing audio restoration algorithms. Where Copeland’s 2008 Manual of Analogue Sound Restoration Techniques is still applicable to archivists and librarians, this article is better suited for sound engineers with technical and mathematical expertise but nonetheless, readers will be introduced to another area of audio preservation that may be of use to the LIS field in the future.
Casey, M., & Gordon, B. (Eds.). (2007). Sound directions: Best practices for audio preservation. n.p: Indiana University & Harvard University. Retrieved from http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/projects/sounddirections/papersPresent/sd_bp_07.pdf
Casey and Gordon present the work of several authors on the broad topic of audio preservation. Along with providing a framework for best practices and recommendations for workflow, this research provides a rationale for the preservation of audio as a means for preserving culture. Attention is given to the technical aspects of audio preservation as it relates to oral histories and music. Comparison is drawn between the preservation efforts at Harvard University and Indiana University. This publication is a valuable resource for both technical experts and skilled digital librarians wishing to deepen their knowledge on the topic of audio preservation or to begin a preservation project at their institution.
Cohen, E. (2001). Preservation of audio. Folk Heritage Collections In Crisis (CLIR publication no.96), 20-31. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub96/preservation.html
Cohen’s presents a call to action for preservationists and folklorists responsible for the lifecycle of audio media. Cohen states that “[l]ibrarians are used to thinking that copies are not the real things. The cult of the original is powerful in the world of analog recording” (Cohen, 2001). The author then goes on to encourage librarians to embrace the digital world and adapt to the landscape of digital preservation. Citing current research and lessons-learned, Cohen identifies five basic steps to securing a future for audio collections. Useful for the librarian/ archivist rather than the sound technician, this publication is a good first step in understanding what is involved in preserving our culture and folklore through audio.
Cornell, E. W., Fadeyev, V., Haber, C., Jin, J., Nordmeyer, R., & Golden, M. (2007). Using optical metrology to reconstruct sound recordings. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 579(2), 901-904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.05.316
This important article by scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory discusses, using optical metrology and imaging processing to access mechanical audio media. Cornell et al. have used this technology to design and build an optical metrology system for the Library of Congress. This technology allows archives and institutions interested in recorded sound preservation to access items that are damaged or too delicate to play. Preserving sounds as they were recorded with no damage to the mechanical media. Any archive or institution with a collection of mechanical audio media will be interested in this research.
Copeland, P. (2008). Manual of analogue sound restoration techniques. London: The British Library. Retrieved from http://www.bl.uk/britishlibrary/~/media/subjects%20images/sound/analoguesoundrestoration.pdf
This manual details the proper techniques for transferring analog audio recordings to digital formats with the ultimate goal of preserving “the original intended sound” (Copeland, 2008, p.3). As with much of the literature on audio preservation, the author’s primary focus is the digitization of analog audio recordings, but unlike the other literature, the author is more concerned with restoring the original sound than simply reformatting the recording. Thus, this manual is a great reference for readers interested in the technical aspects of digitization and restoration of analog audio recordings.
Davenport, N. (2010). Obstacles to access and preservation in recorded sound. The State of Recorded Sound Preservation in the United States: A National Legacy at Risk in the Digital Age (CLIR publication no.148), 156-164. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub148/pub148.pdf
“Managers must weigh the costs of preserving fragile sound recordings against the costs of preserving collections overall, and must demonstrate efficiency and effectiveness in terms of number of items preserved. Amidst these tradeoffs, cultural heritage hangs in the balance” (Davenport, 2010). In her report on accessibility and preservation of audio media, Davenport conducted a series of interviews with scholars who interacted with audio archives for research. The findings of the research indicate that there is much work to be done in providing discoverability and access to audio archives. Outlined in the study are seven proposed suggestions for the improving the usability of the archives. Among thee suggestions for improvement is the need for rich metadata to accompany each item. Davenport states that “many of these recordings are part of library collections (usually kept in the special or non-book collection), but because of work backlogs they have not yet been described in the library’s catalog” and thus not findable. These proposed suggestions, as well as the accompanying data collected during the interview process, provide useful insight into the meaning of preservation from the scholarly point of view. This research provides supporting arguments for the active preservation of audio media. The documentation contained here would provide the struggling institution with justification for undertaking the intensive process of preservation, and the systematic guidelines would provide a starting point for the effort.
de Lusenet, Y. (2007). Tending the garden or harvesting the fields: Digital preservation and the UNESCO charter on the preservation of the digital heritage. Library Trends, 56(1), 164-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lib.2007.0053
De Lusenet discusses different approaches by countries to preserve their digital cultural heritage. The author includes discussion about what cultural heritage is and what to preserve. Giving archivists a place to start thinking about what to include as important cultural heritage and how to focus preservation efforts. If social media is to be included, there are issues. Some issues with social media are that it is not a product but a process. Archives and institutions know very well how to deal with products but processes need to have tools developed for them. This in depth discussion will give audio archivists and institutions concepts to inform their selection process.
France, F. G. (2015). Audio visual preservation at the Library of Congress. Against The Grain, 27(4), 12-17.
Dr. France, the Acting Director, Preservation Directorate and Chief, Preservation Research and Testing Division, Library of Congress, presents a thorough discussion of various mechanical, optical, magnetic and solid-state media along with their preservation issues and challenges. She talks about the most current research in the field. One of the reasons archives and institutions digitize their audio collections is because the media on which those collections are stored is fragile, digitization improves access. The information shared here will allow archives and institutions to make better decisions when prioritizing the digitization of items in their collection.
Goldman, J., Renals, S., Bird, S., de Jong, F., Federico, M., Fleischhauer, C,...Wright, R. (2005). Accessing the spoken word. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 5(4), 287-298. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00799-004-0101-0
Goldman et al. provide a detailed review of the present state of speech technology. They discuss the best practices for collection management, and the existing policy issues. The authors also propose a research agenda that will advance and integrate speech technology, collection management, and policy. This multinational group of authors speak of the importance of spoken audio to educational, political, economic and cultural needs. Any agency, archive or institution interested in the spoken word (lectures, phone calls, governmental proceedings, radio, TV broadcasts, etc.) will find this article useful.
Hulser, R. P. (2015). The California Light and Sound collection: Preserving our media heritage. Computers in Libraries, 35(3), 4-10. Retrieved from [9]
Mr. Hulser, chief Librarian at the Natural History Museum in Los Angeles County, provides us with a discussion of his experiences with the California Audiovisual Preservation Project (CAVPP). The author goes into the preservation procedures and practices developed by CAVPP that took into account budget and storage constraints. Discussing the experiences and good examples of the selection and criteria processes of an ongoing preservation project. The author also shows the importance of collaboration. Institutions and archives, both large and small, will be interested in this exemplar for archival and institutional preservation processes and as a collaborative model from which to work.
Jackson, J. (2001). Production, preservation, and access: The struggle to retain audiovisual archives. Canadian Journal Of Communication, 26(2). Retrieved from http://www.cjc-online.ca/index/journal/article/view/1219/1182
The author addresses several issues concerning Canada’s audio-visual heritage and how these issues continue to worsen. Jackson, a professor of sociology and anthropology at Concordia University, argues that audio-visual preservation requires more resources to meet the costs of restoration, preservation, and issues of copyright. Additionally, the author points out that Canadian archival agencies will need to readdress their selection methods and make strides in the identification and access of records from other collections. The article broadens its audience’s understanding of audio-visual preservation by examining issues and solutions found in a foreign country.
Kingsbury, P. (2006). Capturing analog sound for digital preservation: Report of a roundtable discussion of best practices for transferring analog discs and tapes (CLIR publication no.137). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources and Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub137/part1.html
The National Recording Preservation Board (NRPB) was created in the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000, when the U.S. realized just how important recorded audio is for cultural heritage. June Besek provides us with the first authoritative guide for best practices on capturing analog recordings. The report was the result of a Congressional mandate to establish best practices, and the result was a report combining techniques of several prestigious audio engineers. Besek and the other members of the NRPB show us that audio preservation efforts have adapted to the digital character required for fast-pace research characteristic of academia nowadays. The authors also exhibit, however, that there are a large number of published and unpublished analog recordings that, if they are not captured, could threaten our cultural heritage. The discussion takes us through every step of capturing, from decisions about safety, storage and maintenance, to the standard formats, sampling rates, metadata and best practices for digitally ingesting and preserving such important, at-risk information artifacts. Until the next report, this shall remain the authoritative guide for capturing analog audio.
Lukicic, T., Grgic, S., & Grgic, M. (2008). Audio archive: From film to digital sound recording. ELMAR 2008: 50th International Symposium, 1, 69-72. Retrieved from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.proxy.lib.wayne.edu/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=4747440&tag=1
The paper discusses the evolution of audio from film and television, from analog to digital, and touches on the challenges of converting older audio formats to digital content (i.e., costs, availability of equipment, intellectual property rights, and interoperability). Lukicic, a senior system engineer at Croatian Radiotelevision, Sonja Grgic, a professor of communication engineering, electrical engineering, and telecommunications engineering at the University of Zagreb, and Marijan Grgic, a professor within the University of Zagreb’s Department of Geomatics, provide excellent descriptions and images of different audio formats within the article, while addressing each type of audio in chronological order. The article is an excellent introductory source for readers interested in the progression of audio formats and the issues surrounding their preservation.
Maple, A., & Henderson, T. (2000). Prelude to a digital music library at the Pennsylvania State University: Networking audio for academic library users. Library Resources & Technical Services, 44(4), 190-195. Retrieved from [10]
The article is designed as a guide to other institutions in the implementation of a digital music library. The authors, Maple, a music librarian at Pennsylvania State University, and Henderson, an employee within Pennsylvania State University’s Library Resources and Technical Services department, created this article based on their personal experiences during the development of their university’s digital music library. The authors discuss infrastructure, collections, and human resources as vital factors, with funding as an all-encompassing element. Additionally, the article also provides potential problems and solutions for each factor, including digital audio content and its preservation. The article acts as an excellent source for readers interested in guides and suggestions on how to implement their own digital music library.
Mnjama, N. (2010). Preservation and management of audiovisual archives in Botswana. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science, 20(2), 139-148. Retrieved from [11]
The article discusses the many issues involved with the preservation and management of audio-visual content within several government agencies in Botswana. Mnjama, a professor within the University of Botswana’s Department of Library and Information Studies, contributes these issues to insufficient collection acquisition policies, lack of storage facilities, limited access to materials, an absence of trained workers, scarce funding, technological challenges, and others. In spite of these challenges, the author is hopeful and provides several suggestions to address each problem. The article expands upon its readers’ understanding of audio preservation by addressing challenges found in other countries.
Norris, S. (2014). Toward an ontology of audio preservation. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, 53(3), 171-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1945233014Y.0000000026
As the title indicates, Norris’ article moves toward an ‘ontology’ of audio preservation, which takes the reader through many philosophical perspectives–even disparate terminologies–on the philosophies by which to preserve, digitize, replicate, emulate, or otherwise disseminate aural works. This discussion necessarily ventures into the broader topics of digital preservation and best archival practices for the arts, because audio seems to stand out from other forms of media in its complexity. Norris is a member of a statewide library and archives commission, and is more than capable of approaching the question of the authenticity of works and their duplicates, replicas, or copies; but this is reached only if one is willing to grapple with the abstract concepts she employs. In general, it is very helpful for any audio preservationist to read Norris’ article, so that they can create, or act in accordance with, policies in their respective institutions that reflect deep consideration of what objects exist, why the objects are copied, and how that duplication or replication affects the objects thereafter.
Orio, N., Snidaro, L., Canazza, S., & Foresti, G. L. (2009). Methodologies and tools for audio digital archives. International Journal On Digital Libraries, 10(4), 201-220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00799-010-0060-6
Orio et al. have presented this in depth discussion of analog to digital conversion. They discuss a software approach to extracting metadata from photo and video shot of the audio carriers, and present two case studies. The authors describe a system developed to reconstruct audio signal from a still picture of a phonographic disc. The tool the authors have developed, Photos of GHOSTS, offers a different method than the one developed by Cornell et al. in the creation of IRENE. This article will be of interest to any group that needs to convert a large collection from analog to digital format.
Otto, J. J. (2010). A sound strategy for preservation: Adapting audio engineering society technical metadata for use in multimedia repositories. Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 48(5), 403-422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01639371003757012
In the article, the author discusses integrating the Audio Engineering Society's (AES) "Audio Object" metadata schema with previously existing schemas. While the emphasis is on AES's schema, the article offers a comprehensible explanation of metadata's overall importance in the preservation process, as well as a good background on common multimedia metadata standards, making it a suitable read for those with limited knowledge on multimedia metadata. The strength of this article lies in its thorough analysis of technical metadata for sound and moving image collections, a topic that is not extensively covered in other audio preservation literature.
Plitcha, B. & Kornbluh, M. (2002). Digitizing speech recordings for archival purposes. Michigan: Matrix, The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online, 7.. Retrieved from http://www.historicalvoices.org/papers/audio_digitization.pdf
Plitcha and Kornbluh begin by exposing the most common fundamentally flawed practices (Plitcha and Kornbluh, 2002) and discuss The National Gallery of the Spoken Word research project “that focuses on the ability of digital libraries to preserve and deliver aural resources in a wide variety of useful formats” (Plitcha and Kornbluh, 2002). Comparative analysis of spectrograms from phonograph and reel-to-reel aural recordings as well as spectrographs demonstrating different sample rates provides insight into preservation best practices. This article provides helpful information for making informed decisions on conversion from analog to digital formats as well as storage best practice.
Pruter, R. (2000). Words and music: Understanding the value of textual content on commercial sound recording labels. Archival Issues, 25(1/2), 57-68. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41102026
There is a wealth of information contained on a vinyl album beyond the music recorded there. In this article, Pruter gives several examples of the information that may be contained on the label or scratched into the disc itself. It is important to prevent the loss of this data. Researchers and archivists can use this data to research the recordings. This article is important to archivists and institutions so that they can design their processes and procedures to prevent loss of information. It shows the importance of recording these details about the audio items converted to digital format.
Schüller, D. (2008). Socio-technical and socio-cultural challenges of audio and video preservation. International Preservation News, (46), 5-8. Retrieved from [12]
The article looks at how technical and cultural factors have influenced audiovisual archiving throughout its history, while considering the affects they have had on the present day field. Readers unfamiliar with audiovisual archiving may find the article’s discussion of the field’s current challenges and possible solutions helpful. The article’s historical overview of this field adds context to the topic of audio preservation. While the article does not necessarily present new information on the topic, it’s discussion of audiovisual archiving with a particular focus on field’s evolution in Germany and the rest of Europe adds an international perspective to the topic of audio preservation.
Sepko, D. (2015). The archive of American folk song, the Library of Congress recording laboratory and notions of American identity. Fontes Artis Musicae, 62(2), 92-100.
Dr. Delaina Sepko provides a great asset to the industry of international audio preservation which primarily concerns American history and identity. From this single article, one learns a great deal about the history of the first recording laboratory in the Library of Congress, the tumultuous relationship of the Music Department’s Archive of the American Folk Song (AAFS) with the House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), and how distinctly held notions of national identity, when both commissioned by the same governmental body, can cause problems. Alan Lomax’s name will usually surface in discussion about the history of U.S. sound recording, but Sepko takes us to that time when “folk music enthusiasts raised the idea that contemporary notions of Americanness and American identity were unsuitable” (p. 94); this view was compounded when AAFS also had innovative staff such as Archibald MacLeish and Benjamin Botkin, who, with Lomax, helped pioneer the field of audio preservation through the recording of folk songs. The HUAC, however, launched domestic and political wars against any dissenters, even using the FBI to investigate the Library of Congress. Sepko’s recently published article summarizes the conflicts and broader history of audio preservation very well.
Singh, R. (2009). Digital preservation of mass media artifacts: Technologies and challenges. Journal of Digital Asset Management, 5(4), 185-195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/dam.2009.12 Retrieved from [13]
Within the article, Singh, a senior scientist at the National Informatics Centre in New Delhi, explores the many challenges associated with the preservation and digitization of audio-visual materials. Ultimately, the author offers support for the digitization of such items and maintains that it will “see this invaluable data being used by future researchers in unimaginable ways,” (p. 195). As such, the article provides excellent arguments for digitization as a means of preservation for audio-visual content.
Smith, A., Allen, D. R., & Allen, K. (2004). Survey of the state of audio collections in academic libraries (CLIR publication no.128). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub128/pub128.pdf
The authors conducted a survey on the state of audio collections in two groups of academic libraries. With information on access, rights, funding and resources, the report can aid academic institutions in developing preservation programs for their own audio collections, as well as encourage collaboration between institutions facing the same issues. Similar to the 2010 CLIR report on the state of sound preservation in the United States, this report does not attempt to solve access or preservation issues, instead it merely provides suggestions and presents data that may facilitate solutions. While the study was published over ten years ago and its focus is limited to only academic libraries, the findings are still useful for indicating progress in the field and the framework can still be used in developing future surveys on similar topics.
Teruggi, D. (2004). Can we save our audio-visual heritage? Ariadne, (39). Retrieved from http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue39/teruggi/
This article introduces PrestoSpace, an initiative “to develop systems that will permit quick, efficient and economically accessible preservation of analogue media” (Teruggi, 2004) and discusses how it will create solutions to the cultural heritage problem involving the preservation of audiovisual materials. The author situates the PrestoSpace project by first delving into the origins of audiovisual archives and the landscape that caused the cultural heritage problem. The highlight of the article is not, however, in this contextual preface but in the PrestoSpace project description, specifically the breakdown of the project into four “Work Areas.” Readers interested in the structure of the audio preservation process or collaborative preservation initiatives would find value in this article. Regardless of PrestoSpace’s overall success, the project has the ability to influence future initiatives and research on audiovisual preservation.
Vallier, J. (2010). Sound archiving close to home: Why community partnerships matter. Notes - Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association, 67(1), 39-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/not.2010.0038
Vallier discusses his experiences as archivist for the Ethnomusicology Archive at UCLA and at the University of Washington Media Center. He describes his experiences of communal archiving with the Filipino community and the Greater New Bethel Church in LA to preserve music heritage. He also discusses the different experience using the community of students at University of Washington to document the variety of music being created in the Puget Sound area The author shares his experiences on importance of collaborating with the surrounding communities to achieve the goals of preservation and digitization.
Watson, E. (2004). Luxury or necessity? - Sound archiving in developing countries. IASA Journal, (23), 4-21. Retrieved from http://www.iasa-web.org/sites/default/files/iasa-journal-23-all.pdf
Along with other articles in the literature, Watson’s argues for the importance of sound recordings for cultural heritage. In developing countries, where illiteracy is common and the costs of printing are high, the audio archive could salvage the heritage of cultural groups whose histories exist, sometimes, only through the stories told by elders. Watson presents the main point of the paper when she states that “Sound archiving to [developing countries’] culture is to their culture what the Gutenberg press was to European culture” (p. 7). Considering that the article was published by the IASA, many of the stigmas, issues and suggestions for taking action that are contained in the article should be taken seriously. The mission of the IASA aligns directly with the mission that is necessary to rescue the heritage of many nations with no national archive, so the article ends with a sense of urgency.
Weig, E., Terry, K., & Lybarger, K. (2007). Large scale digitization of oral history: A case study. D-Lib Magazine, 13(5/6). Retrieved from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may07/weig/05weig.html
The authors discuss a project conducted by the University of Kentucky Libraries aiming to reformat analog oral histories on magnetic tape to digital and make them accessible on the Internet. While the article does fall into the small body of literature tackling both oral history and audio preservation, it is still applicable to almost any other analog-to-digital audio reformatting project because of its information on developing digital preservation and digitization workflows. The article's detailed description of the University of Kentucky’s reformatting project, including specifics for the overall cost and digital storage, makes it abundantly useful for professionals looking to do similar audio preservation projects at their institutions. The only caveat would be that the project and article were completed over eight years ago, potentially causing the procedures or cost analysis to become outdated in the coming years.
Wright, R. (2004). Digital preservation of audio, video and film. Vine, 34(2), 71-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03055720410550869 Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com.proxy.lib.wayne.edu/doi/full/10.1108/03055720410550869
The purpose of the article is to further express the findings of the EC Project Presto and to offer guidance for the preservation and digitization of audio-visual materials. Wright, the former Technology Manager for BBC: Information and Archives and Senior Research Engineer for BBC: Research and Development, covers preservation strategies for multiple forms of audio and even provides recommendations and solutions for the preservation and digitization of both large and small audio collections. As such, the article is an excellent source for readers seeking strategies for the preservation and digitization for audio-visual collections.
Young, A., Olivieri, B., Eckler, K., & Gerontakos, T. (2010). Building digital audio preservation infrastructure and workflows. Computers in Libraries, 30(9), 24-28. Retrieved from [14]
Young et al., from the University of Washington Libraries, describe the process of a project to convert analog audio recordings of indigenous Pacific Northwest languages to digital format and then ingest to software. This account describes their experiences, decisions and procedures. The article describes metadata planning and workflow, analog to digital reformatting, and the staging and ingest plan for the digital files and metadata. It also discusses the equipment and software used in the process. Institutions interested in converting their analog audio to digital will find this article useful for its description of this digitization project.
